ISRN Pediatrics
Volume 2011 (2011), Article ID 917684, 10 pages
doi:10.5402/2011/917684
Review Article

Potential Contributors to the Canadian Pediatric Obesity Epidemic

Travis Saunders1,2

1Healthy Active Living and Obesity Research Group, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, K1H 8L1, Canada
2School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada

Received 12 September 2011; Accepted 24 October 2011

Academic Editors: R. Hentschel, J. A. O'Neill, and D. D. Trevisanuto

Copyright © 2011 Travis Saunders. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Linked References

  1. I. Janssen, M. Shields, C. L. Craig, and M. S. Tremblay, “Prevalence and secular changes in abdominal obesity in Canadian adolescents and adults, 1981 to 2007–2009,” Obesity Reviews, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 397–405, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
  2. M. S. Tremblay, P. T. Katzmarzyk, and J. D. Willms, “Temporal trends in overweight and obesity in Canada, 1981–1996,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 538–543, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  3. M. S. Tremblay and J. D. Willms, “Secular trends in the body mass index of Canadian children,” CMAJ, vol. 163, no. 11, pp. 1429–1433, 2000. View at Scopus
  4. M. S. Tremblay, M. Shields, M. Laviolette, C. L. Craig, I. Janssen, and S. C. Gorber, “Fitness of Canadian children and youth: results from the 2007–2009 Canadian Health Measures Survey,” Health Reports, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 7–20, 2010. View at Scopus
  5. S. Lee, F. Bacha, N. Gungor, and S. A. Arslanian, “Waist circumference is an independent predictor of insulin resistance in black and white youths,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 148, no. 2, pp. 188–194, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  6. L. B. Andersen, L. Sardinha, K. Froberg, C. J. Riddoch, A. S. Page, and S. A. Anderssen, “Fitness, fatness and clustering of cardiovascular risk factors in children from Denmark, Estonia and Portugal: the European Youth Heart Study,” International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, vol. 3, supplement 1, pp. 58–66, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  7. W. H. Dietz, “Health consequences of obesity in youth: childhood predictors of adult disease,” Pediatrics, vol. 101, no. 3, part 2, pp. 518–525, 1998. View at Scopus
  8. D. S. Freedman, W. H. Dietz, S. R. Srinivasan, and G. S. Berenson, “The relation of overweight to cardiovascular risk factors among children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study,” Pediatrics, vol. 103, no. 6, part 1, pp. 1175–1182, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  9. A. Must, P. F. Jacques, G. E. Dallal, C. J. Bajema, and W. H. Dietz, “Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents—a follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 327, no. 19, pp. 1350–1355, 1992. View at Scopus
  10. D. J. Gunnell, S. J. Frankel, K. Nanchahal, T. J. Peters, and G. D. Smith, “Childhood obesity and adult cardiovascular mortality: a 57-y follow-up study based on the Boyd Orr cohort,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 67, no. 6, pp. 1111–1118, 1998. View at Scopus
  11. E. Jéquier and L. Tappy, “Regulation of body weight in humans,” Physiological Reviews, vol. 79, no. 2, pp. 451–480, 1999. View at Scopus
  12. A. Tremblay, E. Fontaine, E. T. Poehlman, D. Mitchell, L. Perron, and C. Bouchard, “The effect of exercise-training on resting metabolic rate in lean and moderately obese individuals,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 511–517, 1986.
  13. J. P. Chaput, L. Klingenberg, M. Rosenkilde, J. A. Gilbert, A. Tremblay, and A. Sjodin, “Physical activity plays an important role in body weight regulation,” Journal of Obesity, vol. 2011, Article ID 360257, 11 pages, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
  14. J. Mayer, P. Roy, and K. P. Mitra, “Relation between caloric intake, body weight, and physical work: studies in an industrial male population in West Bengal,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 169–175, 1956. View at Scopus
  15. R. J. Stubbs, D. A. Hughes, A. M. Johnstone, G. W. Horgan, N. King, and J. E. Blundell, “A decrease in physical activity affects appetite, energy, and nutrient balance in lean men feeding ad libitum,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 79, no. 1, pp. 62–69, 2004. View at Scopus
  16. C. Martins, L. Morgan, and H. Truby, “A review of the effects of exercise on appetite regulation: an obesity perspective,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 32, no. 9, pp. 1337–1347, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  17. C. Martins, H. Truby, and L. M. Morgan, “Short-term appetite control in response to a 6-week exercise programme in sedentary volunteers,” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 98, no. 4, pp. 834–842, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  18. A. Must and D. J. Tybor, “Physical activity and sedentary behavior: a review of longitudinal studies of weight and adiposity in youth,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 29, supplement 2, pp. S84–S96, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  19. M. M. Davis, B. Gance-Cleveland, S. Hassink, R. Johnson, G. Paradis, and K. Resnicow, “Recommendations for prevention of childhood obesity,” Pediatrics, vol. 120, supplement 4, pp. S229–S253, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  20. W. B. Strong, R. M. Malina, C. J. R. Blimkie et al., “Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth,” Journal of Pediatrics, vol. 146, no. 6, pp. 732–737, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  21. C. S. Berkey, H. R. Rockett, A. E. Field et al., “Activity, dietary intake, and weight changes in a longitudinal study of preadolescent and adolescent boys and girls,” Pediatrics, vol. 105, no. 4, p. E56, 2000. View at Scopus
  22. J. B. Connelly, M. J. Duaso, and G. Butler, “A systematic review of controlled trials of interventions to prevent childhood obesity and overweight: a realistic synthesis of the evidence,” Public Health, vol. 121, no. 7, pp. 510–517, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  23. M. S. Tremblay, D. W. Esliger, J. L. Copeland, J. D. Barnes, and D. R. Bassett, “Moving forward by looking back: lessons learned from long-lost lifestyles,” Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 836–842, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  24. S. A. Prince, K. B. Adamo, M. E. Hamel, J. Hardt, S. Connor Gorber, and M. Tremblay, “A comparison of direct versus self-report measures for assessing physical activity in adults: a systematic review,” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, vol. 5, no. 55, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
  25. S. W. Keith, D. T. Redden, P. T. Katzmarzyk et al., “Putative contributors to the secular increase in obesity: exploring the roads less traveled,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 1585–1594, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  26. J. C. Eisenmann, P. T. Katzmarzyk, and M. Tremblay, “Leisure-time physical activity levels among Canadian adolescents, 1981–1998,” Journal of Physical Activity and Health, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 154–162, 2004.
  27. R. N. Buliung, R. Mitra, and G. Faulkner, “Active school transportation in the Greater Toronto Area, Canada: an exploration of trends in space and time (1986–2006),” Preventive Medicine, vol. 48, no. 6, pp. 507–512, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  28. D. R. Bassett, “Physical activity of Canadian and American children: a focus on youth in Amish, Mennonite, and modern cultures,” Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 831–835, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  29. D. W. Esliger, M. S. Tremblay, J. L. Copeland, J. D. Barnes, G. E. Huntington, and D. R. Bassett Jr., “Physical activity profile of old order Amish, Mennonite, and contemporary children,” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 296–303, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  30. R. C. Colley, D. Garriguet, I. Janssen, C. L. Craig, J. Clarke, and M. S. Tremblay, “Physical activity of Canadian children and youth: accelerometer results from the 2007 to 2009 Canadian Health Measures Survey,” Health Reports, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 15–23, 2011.
  31. M. S. Tremblay, D. E. R. Warburton, I. Janssen et al., “New Canadian physical activity guidelines,” Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 36–46, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
  32. M. S. Tremblay, D. E. R. Warburton, I. Janssen et al., “The new Canadian physical activity guidelines,” Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 47–58, 2011. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  33. M. S. Tremblay, R. C. Colley, T. J. Saunders, G. N. Healy, and N. Owen, “Physiological and health implications of a sedentary lifestyle,” Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 725–740, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  34. S. J. Marshall, T. Gorely, and S. J. H. Biddle, “A descriptive epidemiology of screen-based media use in youth: a review and critique,” Journal of Adolescence, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 333–349, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  35. M. C. Nelson, D. Neumark-Stzainer, P. J. Hannan, J. R. Sirard, and M. Story, “Longitudinal and secular trends in physical activity and sedentary behavior during adolescence,” Pediatrics, vol. 118, no. 6, pp. e1627–e1634, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  36. Active Healthy Kids Canada, It's Time to Unplug Our Kids—Canada's Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2008.
  37. S. J. Marshall, S. J. H. Biddle, T. Gorely, N. Cameron, and I. Murdey, “Relationships between media use, body fatness and physical activity in children and youth: a meta-analysis,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 28, no. 10, pp. 1238–1246, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
  38. V. Burke, L. J. Beilin, K. Simmer et al., “Predictors of body mass index and associations with cardiovascular risk factors in Australian children: a prospective cohort study,” International Journal of Obesity, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 15–23, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  39. T. N. Robinson, “Reducing children's television viewing to prevent obesity: a randomized controlled trial,” Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 282, no. 16, pp. 1561–1567, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  40. Active Healthy Kids Canada, Healthy Habits Start Earlier Than You Think—Canada's Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2010.
  41. U. Ekelund, S. Brage, K. Froberg et al., “TV viewing and physical activity are independently associated with metabolic risk in children: the European Youth Heart Study,” PLoS Medicine, vol. 3, no. 12, article e488, pp. 2449–2457, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  42. J. P. Rey-López, G. Vicente-Rodríguez, M. Biosca, and L. A. Moreno, “Sedentary behaviour and obesity development in children and adolescents,” Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 242–251, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  43. J. L. Wiecha, K. E. Peterson, D. S. Ludwig, J. Kim, A. Sobol, and S. L. Gortmaker, “When children eat what they watch: impact of television viewing on dietary intake in youth,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, vol. 160, no. 4, pp. 436–442, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  44. J. C. G. Halford, E. J. Boyland, G. Hughes, L. P. Oliveira, and T. M. Dovey, “Beyond-brand effect of television (TV) food advertisements/commercials on caloric intake and food choice of 5–7-year-old children,” Appetite, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 263–267, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  45. J. C. G. Halford, J. Gillespie, V. Brown, E. E. Pontin, and T. M. Dovey, “Effect of television advertisements for foods on food consumption in children,” Appetite, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 221–225, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  46. C. Bouchard, A. Tremblay, J. P. Despres et al., “The response to long-term overfeeding in identical twins,” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 322, no. 21, pp. 1477–1482, 1990. View at Scopus
  47. J. A. Levine, N. L. Eberhardt, and M. D. Jensen, “Role of nonexercise activity thermogenesis in resistance to fat gain in humans,” Science, vol. 283, no. 5399, pp. 212–214, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  48. N. G. Norgan and J. V. G. A. Durnin, “The effect of 6 weeks of overfeeding on the body weight, body composition, and energy metabolism of young men,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 33, no. 5, pp. 978–988, 1980. View at Scopus
  49. L. A. Moreno and G. Rodríguez, “Dietary risk factors for development of childhood obesity,” Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 336–341, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  50. J. Pomerleau, T. Østbye, and E. Bright-See, “Potential underreporting of energy intake in the Ontario Health Survey and its relationship with nutrient and food intakes,” European Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 553–557, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  51. C. M. Champagne, N. B. Baker, J. P. DeLany, D. W. Harsha, and G. A. Bray, “Assessment of energy intake underreporting by doubly labeled water and observations on reported nutrient intakes in children,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association, vol. 98, no. 4, pp. 426–430, 1998. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  52. T. T. K. Huang, N. C. Howarth, B. H. Lin, S. B. Roberts, and M. A. McCrory, “Energy intake and meal portions: associations with BMI percentile in U.S. children,” Obesity Research, vol. 12, no. 11, pp. 1875–1885, 2004. View at Scopus
  53. S. J. Nielsen, A. M. Siega-Riz, and B. M. Popkin, “Trends in energy intake in U.S. between 1977 and 1996: similar shifts seen across age groups,” Obesity Research, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 370–378, 2002. View at Scopus
  54. Y. K. Park and E. A. Yetley, “Intakes and food sources of fructose in the United States,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 58, no. 5, pp. 737S–747S, 1993. View at Scopus
  55. B. P. Marriott, N. Cole, and E. Lee, “National estimates of dietary fructose intake increased from 1977 to 2004 in the United States,” Journal of Nutrition, vol. 139, no. 6, pp. 1228S–1235S, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  56. S. J. Nielsen and B. M. Popkin, “Patterns and trends in food portion sizes, 1977–1998,” Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 289, no. 4, pp. 450–453, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  57. R. P. Troiano, R. R. Briefel, M. D. Carroll, and K. Bialostosky, “Energy and fat intakes of children arid adolescents in the United States: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 72, no. 5, pp. 1343S–1353S, 2000. View at Scopus
  58. C. Cavadini, A. M. Siega-Riz, and B. M. Popkin, “US adolescent food intake trends from 1965 to 1996,” Archives of Disease in Childhood, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. 18–24, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  59. S. A. French, B. H. Lin, and J. F. Guthrie, “National trends in soft drink consumption among children and adolescents age 6 to 17 years: prevalence, amounts, and sources, 1977/1978 to 1994/1998,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association, vol. 103, no. 10, pp. 1326–1331, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  60. Y. C. Wang, S. N. Bleich, and S. L. Gortmaker, “Increasing caloric contribution from sugar- sweetened beverages and 100% fruit juices among US children and adolescents, 1988–2004,” Pediatrics, vol. 121, no. 6, pp. e1604–e1614, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  61. V. S. Malik, M. B. Schulze, and F. B. Hu, “Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 274–288, 2006. View at Scopus
  62. L. R. Vartanian, M. B. Schwartz, and K. D. Brownell, “Effects of soft drink consumption on nutrition and health: a systematic review and meta-analysis,” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 97, no. 4, pp. 667–675, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  63. D. S. Ludwig, K. E. Peterson, and S. L. Gortmaker, “Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis,” The Lancet, vol. 357, no. 9255, pp. 505–508, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  64. Y. C. Wang, D. S. Ludwig, K. Sonneville, and S. L. Gortmaker, “Impact of change in sweetened caloric beverage consumption on energy intake among children and adolescents,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, vol. 163, no. 4, pp. 336–343, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  65. K. L. Stanhope and P. J. Havel, “Endocrine and metabolic effects of consuming beverages sweetened with fructose, glucose, sucrose, or high-fructose corn syrup,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 88, no. 6, pp. 1733S–1737S, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  66. J. E. Blundell and J. I. Macdiarmid, “Fat as a risk factor for overconsumption: satiation, satiety, and patterns of eating,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association, vol. 97, no. 7, pp. S63–S69, 1997. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  67. G. A. Bray and B. M. Popkin, “Dietary fat intake does affect obesity,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 68, no. 6, pp. 1157–1173, 1998. View at Scopus
  68. S. J. Nielsen and B. M. Popkin, “Changes in beverage intake between 1977 and 2001,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 205–210, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  69. A. Tremblay and J. P. Chaput, “About unsuspected potential determinants of obesity,” Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 791–796, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  70. G. C. Major, J. P. Chaput, M. Ledoux et al., “Recent developments in calcium-related obesity research,” Obesity Reviews, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 428–445, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  71. T. Winzenberg, K. Shaw, J. Fryer, and G. Jones, “Calcium supplements in healthy children do not affect weight gain, height, or body composition,” Obesity, vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 1789–1798, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  72. R. Trowman, J. C. Dumville, S. Hahn, and D. J. Torgerson, “A systematic review of the effects of calcium supplementation on body weight,” British Journal of Nutrition, vol. 95, no. 6, pp. 1033–1038, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  73. F. P. Cappuccio, F. M. Taggart, N. B. Kandala et al., “Meta-analysis of short sleep duration and obesity in children and adults,” Sleep, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 619–626, 2008. View at Scopus
  74. T. Young, “Increasing sleep duration for a healthier (and less obese?) population tomorrow,” Sleep, vol. 31, no. 5, pp. 593–594, 2008. View at Scopus
  75. J. J. Reilly, J. Armstrong, A. R. Dorosty et al., “Early life risk factors for obesity in childhood: cohort study,” British Medical Journal, vol. 330, no. 7504, pp. 1357–1359, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  76. J. F. Bell and F. J. Zimmerman, “Shortened nighttime sleep duration in early life and subsequent childhood obesity,” Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, vol. 164, no. 9, pp. 840–845, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  77. I. Iglowstein, O. G. Jenni, L. Molinari, and R. H. Largo, “Sleep duration from infancy to adolescence: reference values and generational trends,” Pediatrics, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 302–307, 2003. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  78. J. Dollman, K. Ridley, T. Olds, and E. Lowe, “Trends in the duration of school-day sleep among 10- to 15-year-old South Australians between 1985 and 2004,” Acta Paediatrica, vol. 96, no. 7, pp. 1011–1014, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  79. S. Pallesen, J. Hetland, B. Sivertsen, O. Samdal, T. Torsheim, and H. I. Nordhus, “Time trends in sleep-onset difficulties among Norwegian adolescents: 1983–2005,” Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, vol. 36, no. 8, pp. 889–895, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  80. C. A. Magee, X. F. Huang, D. C. Iverson, and P. Caputi, “Examining the pathways linking chronic sleep restriction to obesity,” Journal of Obesity, vol. 2010, Article ID 821710, 8 pages, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
  81. K. L. Knutson, K. Spiegel, P. Penev, and E. van Cauter, “The metabolic consequences of sleep deprivation,” Sleep Medicine Reviews, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 163–178, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  82. K. Spiegel, R. Leproult, M. L'Hermite-Balériaux, G. Copinschi, P. D. Penev, and E. van Cauter, “Leptin levels are dependent on sleep duration: relationships with sympathovagal balance, carbohydrate regulation, cortisol, and thyrotropin,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol. 89, no. 11, pp. 5762–5771, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  83. K. Spiegel, R. Leproult, and E. van Cauter, “Impact of sleep debt on metabolic and endocrine function,” The Lancet, vol. 354, no. 9188, pp. 1435–1439, 1999. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  84. K. Spiegel, E. Tasali, P. Penev, and E. van Cauter, “Brief communication: sleep curtailment in healthy young men is associated with decreased leptin levels, elevated ghrelin levels, and increased hunger and appetite,” Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 141, no. 11, pp. 846–850, 2004. View at Scopus
  85. C. M. Novak and J. A. Levine, “Central neural and endocrine mechanisms of non-exercise activity thermogenesis and their potential impact on obesity,” Journal of Neuroendocrinology, vol. 19, no. 12, pp. 923–940, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  86. L. Brondel, M. A. Romer, P. M. Nougues, P. Touyarou, and D. Davenne, “Acute partial sleep deprivation increases food intake in healthy men,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 91, no. 6, pp. 1550–1559, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  87. E. Diamanti-Kandarakis, J. P. Bourguignon, L. C. Giudice et al., “Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: an endocrine society scientific statement,” Endocrine Reviews, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 293–342, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  88. F. Grün and B. Blumberg, “Environmental obesogens: organotins and endocrine disruption via nuclear receptor signaling,” Endocrinology, vol. 147, no. 6, pp. S50–S55, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  89. C. Koopman-Esseboom, D. C. Morse, N. Weisglas-Kuperus et al., “Effects of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls on thyroid hormone status of pregnant women and their infants,” Pediatric Research, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 468–473, 1994. View at Scopus
  90. C. Pelletier, E. Doucet, P. Imbeault, and A. Tremblay, “Association between weight loss-induced changes in plasma organochlorine concentrations, serum T(3) concentration, and resting metabolic rate,” Toxicological Sciences, vol. 67, no. 1, pp. 46–51, 2002. View at Scopus
  91. P. Imbeault, A. Tremblay, J. A. Simoneau, and D. R. Joanisse, “Weight loss-induced rise in plasma pollutant is associated with reduced skeletal muscle oxidative capacity,” American Journal of Physiology—Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol. 282, no. 3, pp. E574–E579, 2002.
  92. E. E. Hatch, J. W. Nelson, R. W. Stahlhut, and T. F. Webster, “Association of endocrine disruptors and obesity: perspectives from epidemiological studies,” International Journal of Andrology, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 324–331, 2010. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  93. W. Karmaus, J. R. Osuch, I. Eneli et al., “Maternal levels of dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethylene (DDE) may increase weight and body mass index in adult female offspring,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine, vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 143–149, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  94. H. M. Blanck, M. Marcus, C. Rubin et al., “Growth in girls exposed in utero and postnatally to polybrominated biphenyls and polychlorinated biphenyls,” Epidemiology, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 205–210, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  95. S. Loh and B. Ram, “Delayed childbearing in Canada: trends and factors,” Genus, vol. 46, no. 1-2, pp. 147–161, 1990. View at Scopus
  96. S. C. Tough, C. Newburn-Cook, D. W. Johnston, L. W. Svenson, S. Rose, and J. Belik, “Delayed childbearing and its impact on population rate changes in lower birth weight, multiple birth, and preterm delivery,” Pediatrics, vol. 109, no. 3, pp. 399–403, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  97. S. Wadhera, “Trends in birth and fertility rates, Canada, 1921–1987,” Health Reports, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 211–223, 1989. View at Scopus
  98. S. J. Ventura, “First births to older mothers, 1970–86,” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 79, no. 12, pp. 1675–1677, 1989. View at Scopus
  99. G. Breart, “Delayed childbearing,” European Journal of Obstetrics Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 71–73, 1997. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar
  100. U. Kalberer, D. Baud, A. Fontanet, P. Hohlfeld, and D. de Ziegler, “Birth records from Swiss married couples analyzed over the past 35 years reveal an aging of first-time mothers by 5.1 years while the interpregnancy interval has shortened,” Fertility and Sterility, vol. 92, no. 6, pp. 2072–2073, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  101. K. K. L. Ong, M. L. Ahmed, P. M. Emmett, M. A. Preece, and D. B. Dunger, “Association between postnatal catch-up growth and obesity in childhood: prospective cohort study,” British Medical Journal, vol. 320, no. 7240, pp. 967–971, 2000. View at Scopus
  102. O. Hue, J. Marcotte, F. Berrigan et al., “Plasma concentration of organochlorine compounds is associated with age and not obesity,” Chemosphere, vol. 67, no. 7, pp. 1463–1467, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  103. J. L. Kuk, T. J. Saunders, L. E. Davidson, and R. Ross, “Age-related changes in total and regional fat distribution,” Ageing Research Reviews, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 339–348, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  104. A. Smink, N. Ribas-Fito, R. Garcia et al., “Exposure to hexachlorobenzene during pregnancy increases the risk of overweight in children aged 6 years,” Acta Paediatrica, vol. 97, no. 10, pp. 1465–1469, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  105. M. E. Symonds, S. Pearce, J. Bispham, D. S. Gardner, and T. Stephenson, “Timing of nutrient restriction and programming of fetal adipose tissue development,” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 397–403, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  106. M. L. Patterson, S. Stern, P. B. Crawford et al., “Sociodemographic factors and obesity in preadolescent black and white girls: NHLBI's Growth and Health Study,” Journal of the National Medical Association, vol. 89, no. 9, pp. 594–600, 1997. View at Scopus
  107. T. Harder, R. Bergmann, G. Kallischnigg, and A. Plagemann, “Duration of breastfeeding and risk of overweight: a meta-analysis,” American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 162, no. 5, pp. 397–403, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  108. A. Yngve and M. Sjöström, “Breastfeeding in countries of the European Union and EFTA: current and proposed recommendations, rationale, prevalence, duration and trends,” Public Health Nutrition, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 631–645, 2001. View at Scopus
  109. A. S. Ryan, Z. Wenjun, and A. Acosta, “Breastfeeding continues to increase into the new millennium,” Pediatrics, vol. 110, no. 6, pp. 1103–1109, 2002. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus
  110. E. Oken, E. M. Taveras, K. P. Kleinman, J. W. Rich-Edwards, and M. W. Gillman, “Gestational weight gain and child adiposity at age 3 years,” American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, vol. 196, no. 4, pp. 322.e1–322.e8, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed
  111. C. M. Olson, M. S. Strawderman, and B. A. Dennison, “Maternal weight gain during pregnancy and child weight at age 3 years,” Maternal and Child Health Journal, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 839–846, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  112. J. G. Kral, S. Biron, S. Simard et al., “Large maternal weight loss from obesity surgery prevents transmission of obesity to children who were followed for 2 to 18 years,” Pediatrics, vol. 118, no. 6, pp. e1644–e1649, 2006. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed · View at Scopus
  113. M. Shields, M. S. Tremblay, M. Laviolette, C. L. Craig, I. Janssen, and S. C. Gorber, “Fitness of Canadian adults: results from the 2007–2009 Canadian Health Measures Survey,” Health Reports, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 21–35, 2010. View at Scopus
  114. C. Bouchard, “Current understanding of the etiology of obesity: genetic and nongenetic factors,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 1561S–1565S, 1991. View at Scopus
  115. L. A. Francis, Y. Lee, and L. L. Birch, “Parental weight status and girls' television viewing, snacking, and body mass indexes,” Obesity Research, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 143–151, 2003. View at Scopus
  116. I. C. McMillen, L. Rattanatray, J. A. Duffield et al., “The early origins of later obesity: pathways and mechanisms,” Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 646, pp. 71–81, 2009. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at Scopus